题目:What is the socially efficient level of crime?
在这篇文章中,它认为犯罪的社会效率水平实际上显著高于零,尽管社会成本猖獗,由于预防支出和犯罪造成的成本之间的必要权衡,以及犯罪的潜在有利影响然而,必须承认,犯罪和由此产生的社会成本之间并没有“简单的关系”,尽管辅以案例研究的成本效益分析提供了一个指示首先,犯罪的社会成本包含额外的机会成本维度。其次是预防成本,其次是潜在的社会效益。最后,罚款的使用可能有助于确定社会效率水平。在这里,犯罪指的是各种行为,意味着违反社会规范,并受到法律惩罚,从金融犯罪到杀人,尽管“犯罪”自然可以有不同的定义,在不同的法律制度。
在这种背景下,“社会效率”可以被描述为将犯罪对所有经济主体的所有后果都考虑在内具体来说,社会效率可以定义为:边际社会成本加边际社会效益(MSC=MSB),社会成本分为先发制人的预防成本、犯罪支出的社会成本和犯罪造成的成本,以及犯罪本身潜在的有益效果因此,为了使整体社会成本最小化,预防犯罪的边际成本应等于犯罪的边际社会成本(MCp=MSC)。如果犯罪的MCp>MSC,那么预防犯罪的成本比允许犯罪发生的成本更高,从而导致更高的整体社会成本。相反,如果MCp<MSC,那么犯罪可以以比犯罪造成的社会成本更低的社会成本来预防。
然而,可以认为犯罪的社会效率水平为零,因为它是“经济低效的主要来源”,有效地绕过了市场。主要来说,犯罪所涉及的外部成本是如此之大,以至于根本不应该存在。这包括犯罪附加成本,可分为逮捕成本、定罪成本和惩罚成本首先,恐惧成本可以用英国警察支出来估算,2019- 2020年英国警察支出为140.63亿英镑。其次,平均单位定罪成本从商业盗窃200英镑到杀人800980英镑不等。[9]第三,2015年英国监禁花费纳税人2,753,747,261英镑,即每个囚犯32,510英镑。2018- 2019年,司法部的总运营支出为100亿英镑,收入为16亿英镑在美国,类似的统计数据甚至更令人担忧,2012年刑事司法系统的支出高达2100亿美元这样的数额体现了犯罪的巨大社会成本,表明最优水平即使不是绝对的零,也接近于零。
此外,作为犯罪的后果,还有相当大的社会成本,例如犯罪受害者的产出损失。例如,在英国,暴力犯罪受害者的平均生产力损失成本是2060英镑(5小时的工作时间和减少的36小时生产力)同样的原理可以用来估计犯罪的社会成本与医疗成本有关。对于同样的犯罪,平均单位医疗费用为920英镑此外,还有很大的预期和反动社会成本,特别是潜在受害者采取的防御性预防措施。这包括一系列措施,如保险、锁、门、私人闭路电视和警报,英国的成本估计在30亿英镑至40亿英镑至250亿英镑左右。这种阻止犯罪的资源分配自然会给社会造成巨大的金钱和心理成本,尽管它确实提供了就业和其他经济利益。同样,用于犯罪的资源也代表了社会成本。这里,必须增加一个机会成本维度来完全捕获这个参数首先,罪犯的人力和物力资本本可以被用来促进经济的生产潜力,创造潜在的社会收益,而不是通过犯罪造成高额的社会成本。这种机会成本还包括潜在受害者为保护自己免遭犯罪而花费的资源。其次的选择可能是增加商品和服务支出,以提高实际生活水平。
然而,也可以认为,犯罪的社会效率水平是相对较高的,因为与允许某些犯罪发生相比,分配给预防的资源可以产生更大的社会负担(MCp<MSC)。弗里德曼的说法也证实了这一点,他说:“盗窃是低效的,但花100美元防止10美元的盗窃更低效。”以下分析可分为预防的高货币成本和非货币成本。
在货币层面上,这种高昂的费用将以人力和物力资源支出的形式出现,例如加强警察的存在和监督。虽然这创造了就业,但机会成本仍然存在。为了估计使犯罪水平接近于0所需的支出,可以使用新加坡的例子,在那里,高额的刑罚加上人均200多美元的治安支出,实现了相对较低的犯罪率,每10万人中有617人,故意杀人率为0.7人。这也意味着需要无数的资源才能达到犯罪几乎为零的程度,通过征税造成的社会成本甚至超过犯罪本身。
预防犯罪的非货币成本也表明,犯罪的社会效率水平远高于零。这些社会成本集中在对公民权利和自由的侵犯,如集会和行动自由,这无疑会受到警察国家寻求极低的犯罪水平的限制。一个相关的例子是前民主德国,秘密警察通过“加强社会控制、严厉的国家制裁和减少机会结构”镇压犯罪和异议。然而,这不可避免地导致了长期社会成本的急剧上升,最近的一些文章称,即使在德国统一30年后,“对警察国家的记忆仍会造成深刻的心理创伤”作为史塔西行动的结果,心理学家诊断出各种状况,包括创伤后应激障碍、焦虑和抑郁总的来说,这个案例研究表明,将犯罪降低到很低水平的努力往往会导致比犯罪本身实际造成的更大的社会成本。这个例子显示了这些措施的持久危害。即使采取了一种更社会自由而不是专制的方法,比如在斯堪的纳维亚国家,通过再分配措施来降低犯罪的动机,成本仍然很高,犯罪可能会持续下去。即使在今天,经济学家仍认为,在美国,“减少警务支出将增加社会福利。
然而,预防胜于治疗的观点也适用于犯罪。虽然很难计算预防措施带来的社会效益,但一项对闭路电视(CCTV)的研究表明,侵犯公民权利和自由与减少犯罪之间的权衡并不像人们普遍认为的那么大。首先,人们普遍认为,闭路电视如果得到适当的实施和监控,可以有效地减少犯罪。然而,罗曼和法雷尔也认为,“有证据表明,闭路电视可以在不侵犯人们自由的情况下使用。”同样,关于侵犯公民自由的论点也因其主张的是“匿名犯罪的权利”而被削弱。因此,随着技术的发展,可以认为预防和社会成本之间的权衡越来越不适用,这表明社会效率水平将在长期内下降。
其次,可以说,由于潜在的社会效益,犯罪在某些情况下的社会效率水平可能高得惊人。这对于诸如盗窃和欺诈等实际上是转移支付的再分配犯罪尤其重要。从功利主义的角度来看,如果一些资源从较富裕的个体重新分配给较贫穷的个体,那么总体人口的总效用就会增加。这可以用边际效用递减定律来解释,即较不富裕的代理人具有较高的边际效用水平,即其资源的增加将显著改善生活水平。如果犯罪能够产生这样的影响,那么这可能能够改善发展结果。从宏观经济角度来看,这种转移将增加消费,消费是总需求的一个关键组成部分(AD=C+I+G+(X-M)) (AD- ad1),因为较贫穷的个人有更高的边际消费倾向,这反过来可能导致GDP的扩张(Y-Y1)。这表明,一定类型和程度的犯罪可以带来经济效益。然而,净改善可能是边际的,并将减少长期消费趋势。从微观经济学的角度来看,如果一个贫穷的小偷更有可能购买优秀的商品,而富人更有可能购买缺陷的商品,那么犯罪将有助于纠正负外部性造成的市场失灵。
然而,用罚款来确定犯罪的社会效率水平在伦理上是有问题的,因为他们“允许以高价购买犯罪”,会造成潜在的长期社会成本。此外,关于如何计算罚款的争论也出现了,这不可避免地导致了政府的失败和进一步的效率低下。此外,有些罪行可以说是“十恶不赦的,再多的钱也无法弥补所造成的伤害”,因此罚款是不合适的当试图建立一个社会有效水平时,这也暴露出进一步的困难,因为价值完全取决于犯罪的类型。然而,虽然再分配犯罪可能意味着一些效率低下,但所谓的“效率犯罪”[37]确实存在,这表明社会最优不是绝对的零。合理的超速是一个常见的例子,用来证明这一论点,因为有时可能会有事故的潜在成本低于超速的好处。然而,由于这一概念的主观性,这在伦理上是值得怀疑的。
总的来说,尽管尽了最大的努力,犯罪仍然是一种不可避免的社会罪恶。因此,刑法不应投入更多资源打击犯罪,加重纳税人的负担,而应通过有效的惩罚,或可能通过将诸如拥有和供应大麻等B类毒品的行为合法化,确保犯罪带来尽可能少的社会成本。因此,犯罪的社会效率水平因犯罪而异,但可能比通常假定的要高,尽管它不可能给出一个决定性的价值。
Footnotes
1 Friedman, D., n.d. Crime. [online] Econlib. Available at: <https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Crime.html> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
2 Skogh, G. and Stuart, C., 1982. An Economic Analysis of Crime Rates, Punishment, and the Social Consequences of Crime. Public Choice, [online] 38(2), p.171. Available at: <https://www.jstor.org/stable/30023585?seq=1> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
3 Bohm, P., 1987. Social Efficiency: A Concise Introduction To Welfare Economics. 2nd ed. [ebook] London: Macmillan Education Ltd., p.xii. Available at: <https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm%3A978-1-349-18786-7%2F1.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
4 Cooper, R. and Ulen, T., 2013. AN ECONOMIC THEORY OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT CHAPTER 11. [ebook] Pearson, p.471. Available at: <http://web4.uwindsor.ca/users/m/mfc/41240.nsf/831fc2c71873e46285256d6e006c367a/10ff8b04ff3a317885256d88005720f6$FILE/C&U4thchpt11.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
5 Ferraz, E. and Soares, R., 2018. Socially Optimal Crime And Punishment. [ebook] p.13. Available at: <https://www.fea.usp.br/sites/default/files/anexoevento/socp_ferraz_soares.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
6 Posner, R., 1985. An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law. Columbia Law Review, [online] 85(6), p.1195. Available at: <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6448/aee7b1aaa0785667ee8f0ba4fb7e9fe0a3c0.pdf>.
7 Becker, G., 1968. Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, [online] 76(2), p.207. Available at: <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3808(196803/04)76:2%3C169:CAPAEA%3E2.0.CO;2-I> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
8 Home Office, 2019. Police Funding For England & Wales 2015-2020 Statistical Bulletin. London, p.6.
9 Home Office, 2018. The Economic And Social Costs Of Crime Second Edition Research Report 99. London, p.58.
10 Ministry of Justice, 2016. Costs Per Place And Costs Per Prisoner By Individual Prison National Offender Management Service Annual Report And Accounts 2015-16 Management Information Addendum. London: Ministry of Justice Press Office, p.3.
11 House of Commons Library, 2019. The Spending Of The Ministry Of Justice Debate Pack. London, p.3.
12 Ferraz, E. and Soares, R., 2018. Socially Optimal Crime And Punishment. [ebook] p.1. Available at: <https://www.fea.usp.br/sites/default/files/anexo-evento/socp_ferraz_soares.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
13 Home Office, 2018. The Economic And Social Costs Of Crime Second Edition Research Report 99. London, p.42.
14 Ibid. p.46.
15 Ibid. p.23.
16 Skogh, G. and Stuart, C., 1982. An Economic Analysis of Crime Rates, Punishment, and the Social Consequences of Crime. Public Choice, [online] 38(2), p.171. Available at: <https://www.jstor.org/stable/30023585?seq=1> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
17 Ibid.
18 Cooper, R. and Ulen, T., 2013. AN ECONOMIC THEORY OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT CHAPTER 11. [ebook] Pearson, p 471. Available at: <http://web4.uwindsor.ca/users/m/mfc/41240.nsf/831fc2c71873e46285256d6e006c367a/10ff8b04ff3a317885256d88005720f6/$FILE/C&U4thchpt11.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
19 Friedman, D., n.d. Crime. [online] Econlib. Available at: <https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Crime.html> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
20 Farrell, G. and Clark, K., 2004. WHAT DOES THE WORLD SPEND ON CRIMINAL JUSTICE?. [ebook] Helsinki: The European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, p.16. Available at: <https://www.heuni.fi/material/attachments/heuni/papers/6KtlkZMtL/HEUNI_papers_20.pdf> [Accessed 13 May 2020].
21 Ibid.
22 Hirschmann, R., 2020. Singapore: Crime Rate 2019 | Statista. [online] Statista. Available at: <https://www.statista.com/statistics/628339/crime-rates-in-singapore/> [Accessed 13 May 2020].
23 Kury, H. and Smartt, U., 2001. The Changing Face Of Germany's Crime Rate Since Unification. [ebook] Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, p.47. Available at: <https://www.crimeandjustice.org.uk/sites/crimeandjustice.org.uk/files/09627250108553673.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
24 Bailey, C., 2019. The Lingering Trauma of Stasi Surveillance. The Atlantic, [online] Available at: <https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/11/lingering-trauma-east-german-police-state/601669/> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
25 Ibid.
26 Ferraz, E. and Soares, R., 2018. Socially Optimal Crime And Punishment. [ebook] p.31. Available at: <https://www.fea.usp.br/sites/default/files/anexo-evento/socp_ferraz_soares.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
27 Roman, J. and Farrell, G., n.d. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR CRIME PREVENTION: Opportunity Costs, Routine Savings And Crime Externalities. [ebook] pp.80, 81. Available at: <http://www.socialvalueuk.org/app/uploads/2016/03/cba%20for%20crim%20prevention.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
28 Roman, J. and Farrell, G., n.d. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR CRIME PREVENTION: Opportunity Costs, Routine Savings And Crime Externalities. [ebook] pp.80, 81. Available at: <http://www.socialvalueuk.org/app/uploads/2016/03/cba%20for%20crim%20prevention.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
29 Ibid.
30 Posner, R., 1985. An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law. Columbia Law Review, [online] 85(6), p.1198. Available at:
<https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6448/aee7b1aaa0785667ee8f0ba4fb7e9fe0a3c0.pdf
31 Cooper, R. and Ulen, T., 2013. AN ECONOMIC THEORY OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT CHAPTER 11. [ebook] Pearson,
p.471. Available at: <http://web4.uwindsor.ca/users/m/mfc/41-240.nsf/831fc2c71873e46285256d6e006c367a/10ff8b04ff3a317885256d88005720f6/
$FILE/C&U4thchpt11.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
32 Posner, R., 1985. An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law. Columbia Law Review, [online] 85(6), p.1196. Available at: <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6448/aee7b1aaa0785667ee8f0ba4fb7e9fe0a3c0.pdf
33 Becker, G., 1968. Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, [online] 76(2), p.193. Available at: <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3808(196803/04)76:2%3C169:CAPAEA%3E2.0.CO;2-I> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
34 Cooper, R. and Ulen, T., 2013. AN ECONOMIC THEORY OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT CHAPTER 11. [ebook] Pearson, p.474. Available at: <http://web4.uwindsor.ca/users/m/mfc/41-240.nsf/831fc2c71873e46285256d6e006c367a/10ff8b04ff3a317885256d88005720f6/
$FILE/C&U4thchpt11.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
35 Becker, G., 1968. Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, [online] 76(2), p.196. Available at: <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3808(196803/04)76:2%3C169:CAPAEA%3E2.0.CO;2-I> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
36 Ibid.
37 Friedman, D., n.d. David Friedman, Price Theory: Chapter 20: The Economics Of Law And Law Breaking. [online] Daviddfriedman.com. Available at:
<http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Price_Theory/PThy_Chapter_20/PThy_Chapter_20.html> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Bibliography
Becker, G., 1968. Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, [online] 76(2), pp.191, 193, 196, 207. Available at:
<http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-3808(196803/04)76:2%3C169:CAPAEA%3E2.0.CO;2-I> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Bohm, P., 1987. Social Efficiency: A Concise Introduction To Welfare Economics. 2nd ed. [ebook] London: Macmillan Education Ltd., p.xii. Available at:
<https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm%3A978-1-349-18786-7%2F1.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Cooper, R. and Ulen, T., 2013. AN ECONOMIC THEORY OF CRIME AND PUNISHMENT CHAPTER 11. [ebook] Pearson, pp.445, 47, 474. Available at:
<http://web4.uwindsor.ca/users/m/mfc/41-240.nsf/831fc2c71873e46285256d6e006c367a/10ff8b04ff3 a317885256d88005720f6/$FILE/C&U4thchpt11.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Farrell, G. and Clark, K., 2004. WHAT DOES THE WORLD SPEND ON CRIMINAL JUSTICE?. [ebook] Helsinki: The European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, p.16. Available at:
<https://www.heuni.fi/material/attachments/heuni/papers/6KtlkZMtL/HEUNI_papers_20.pdf> [Accessed 13 May 2020].
Ferraz, E. and Soares, R., 2018. Socially Optimal Crime And Punishment. [ebook] pp.1, 2, 13, 31. Available at: <https://www.fea.usp.br/sites/default/files/anexo-evento/socp_ferraz_soares.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Friedman, D., n.d. Crime. [online] Econlib. Available at: <https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Crime.html> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Friedman, D., n.d. David Friedman, Price Theory: Chapter 20: The Economics Of Law And Law Breaking. [online] Daviddfriedman.com. Available at:
<http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Price_Theory/PThy_Chapter_20/PThy_Chapter_20.html> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Hirschmann, R., 2020. Singapore: Crime Rate 2019 | Statista. [online] Statista. Available at: <https://www.statista.com/statistics/628339/crime-rates-in-singapore/> [Accessed 13 May 2020].
Home Office, 2019. Police Funding For England & Wales 2015-2020 Statistical Bulletin. London, p.6.
Home Office, 2018. The Economic And Social Costs Of Crime Second Edition Research Report 99. London, pp. 23, 42, 46.
House of Commons Library, 2019. The Spending Of The Ministry Of Justice Debate Pack. London, p.3.
Ministry of Justice, 2016. Costs Per Place And Costs Per Prisoner By Individual Prison National Offender Management Service Annual Report And Accounts 2015-16 Management Information Addendum. London: Ministry of Justice Press Office, p.3.
Posner, R., 1985. An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law. Columbia Law Review, [online] 85(6), pp.1195, 1196, 1198. Available at: <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6448/aee7b1aaa0785667ee8f0ba4fb7e9fe0a3c0.pdf
Roman, J. and Farrell, G., n.d. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR CRIME PREVENTION: Opportunity Costs, Routine Savings And Crime Externalities. [ebook] pp.80, 81. Available at:
<http://www.socialvalueuk.org/app/uploads/2016/03/cba%20for%20crim%20prevention.pdf> [Accessed 30 April 2020].
Skogh, G. and Stuart, C., 1982. An Economic Analysis of Crime Rates, Punishment, and the Social Consequences of Crime. Public Choice, [online] 38(2), p.171. Available at:
<https://www.jstor.org/stable/30023585?seq=1> [Accessed 30 April 2020].